1. Consonants Consonant sounds are classified according to three main features: Voicing – whether the vocal cords vibrate or not. Voiced (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/). Voiceless (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/). Place of Articulation – where in the vocal tract the sound is produced. Bilabial: /p/, /b/, /m/ (lips together) Labiodental: /f/, /v/ (lip + teeth) Dental: /θ/, /ð/ (tongue + teeth) Alveolar: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/ (tongue + alveolar ridge) Post-alveolar: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ (tongue behind alveolar ridge) Palatal: /j/ (tongue near the hard palate) Velar: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ (tongue against the soft palate) Glottal: /h/, /ʔ/ (produced at the glottis) Manner of Articulation – how the airflow is shaped. Plosives (stops): /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ Fricatives: /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/, /h/ Affricates: /tʃ/, /dʒ/ Nasals: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ Approximants: /r/, /j/, /w/ Lateral Approximant: /l/ 2. Vowels Vowel sounds are classified by tongue position and lip shape: Height ...
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